The Impact of Mothers' Employment on Family Relationships
This paper looks at couples' perceptions of the impact maternal employment has on their relationship with each other and with their children.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Joseph Rowntree Foundation • July 01, 2003

Are Cohabiting Relationships More Violent Than Marriages?
Using data from the National Survey of Families and Households (1987-88 and 1992-93) this paper studies and compares the level of domestic violence ...
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Center for Research on Child Wellbeing • June 01, 2001

Welfare Entries among Children Living With Grandparents
This paper examines economic well-being and the risk of welfare entry among grandparent-headed households with grandchildren present.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Joint Center for Poverty Research • 2000

How Broken Families Rob Children of Their Chances for Future Prosperity
This paper discusses the economic benefits of marriage and the impact of family composition on children.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Heritage Foundation • June 11, 1999

The Necessity of Marriage
This paper addresses why marriage is important for the foundation of a healthy, stable society.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Heritage Foundation • October 20, 2003

Changing Demographics: Past and Future Demands for Early Childhood Programs
This paper examines historical changes to the structure of family life and the corresponding changes in the demand for non-parental child care.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Future of Children • Winter 1995

Life-Span Adjustment of Children to their Parents' Divorce
This article examines a variety of factors that determine how well children cope with the breakup of their parents' marriage.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Future of Children • Spring 1994

Financial Impact of Divorce on Children and their Families
This article looks at the economic impact of divorce on families and finds that most women and children have to deal with considerable financial declines post- divorce.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Future of Children • Spring 1994

Child and Spousal Support: Maintenance Enforcement Survey Statistics
This report provides data on the characteristics of marital and child support cases registered under the Maintenance Enforcement Program for 2008-2009.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics • November 2009

Every Family Matters
This report is a review of family law which highlights the relationship between the legal system,family breakdown and the legal aspects of marriage, parenting, and the rights of the family.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Centre for Social Justice • July 2009

Family Structure and the Economic Mobility of Children
This report looks at the economic ability of adults to surpass the earnings of their parents.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Economic Mobility Project, Pew Charitable Trust • April 2010

Fitness of Canadian Adults: Results from the 2007-2009 Health Measures Survey
This article is an examination of fitness tests which show that many adult Canadians face health risks due to their suboptimal fitness levels.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Statistics Canada • January 2010

When Two Become One: The Unique Nature and Benefits of Marriage (Second Edition)
This publication looks at marriage from a biblical perspective and discusses the changes in Canadian marriage policy.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Evangelical Fellowship of Canada • 2006

Solo-Living in Scotland: Trends and Issues
This research brief presents data on trends in single-person households in Scotland, discusses the characteristics of those who live alone, and assesses the social and individual implications of the increase in solo living.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Centre for Research on Families and Relationships • June 2001

Family Structure, Intergenerational Mobility, and the Reproduction of Poverty: Evidence for Increasing Polarization?
This paper looks at the extent to which the intergenerational transmission of poverty and family structure, along with differential fertility, affects historical trends in the distribution of poverty and single-parenthood.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• California Center for Population Research • October 02, 2003

Cohabitors’ Prerequisites for Marriage: Individual, Relationship, and Sociocultural Influences
This paper examines subjective relational dynamics in a cohabitation arrangement.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Center for Family and Demographic Research • 2004

Union Status and Well-being among Older Adults: The Significance of Cohabitation
This paper examines the psychological well-being of older adults who are either married or cohabiting.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Center for Family and Demographic Research • November 19-22, 2003

Union Type and Adult Self-Esteem
This paper demonstrates that cohabitors have significantly lower levels of self-esteem than married individuals.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Center for Family and Demographic Research • 2002

Effects of Family of Origin on Women’s and Men’s Workforce Involvement
This paper examines the effects of family background characteristics, such as parental education, home literacy environment, maternal and paternal employment, parental income, family size, parental divorce, parental age, immigration status, and geographic location, on men and women's labour force participation.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research • September 2004

Effect of Family Structure on Life Satisfaction: Australian Evidence
This paper provides evidence that a committed, stable, and enduring marriage relationship greatly increases men and women's life satisfaction and happiness.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research • September 2004

Marriage and Welfare Reform: The Overwhelming Evidence that Marriage Education Works
This article looks at the effects of the 1996 welfare reform law to strengthen and increase the number of two-parent families in the United States.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Heritage Foundation • October 25, 2002

Portraits of Fathers
This study of fatherhood in Canada addresses issues such as the unique role of the father in the family and the impact that their absence or presence has on their families.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Vanier Insitute of the Family • 2002

The Role of the Father After Divorce
This article discusses the importance of and challenges to creating a meaningful role for fathers after a divorce.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Future of Children • Spring 1994

Health Status and Behaviors of Unwed Fathers
This paper provides a comparative analysis of the overall well-being of fathers who are either married or in other various forms of relationships with their child's mother.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Center for Research on Child Wellbeing • January 01, 2001

Meeting the Challenges of Contemporary Foster Care
This article examines the current foster care system and looks at the challenges the system faces, such as the overrepresentation of children from ethnic minority backgrounds, the high attrition of foster parents, high rates of staff turnover, and heavy caseloads.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Future of Children • 2004

Effective Intervention in Wife Battering and Child Maltreatment Cases: Guidelines for Policy and Practice
This report provides information for those dealing with overlapping cases of wife abuse and child maltreatment.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges, Family Violence Department • 1999

Events that Trigger Poverty Entries and Exits
This paper discusses factors contributing to entry into or exit out of poverty, including household composition and employment status.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Joint Center for Poverty Research • December 2002

For Richer or Poorer? Marriage as an Anti-Poverty Strategy in the United States
This paper provides a critique of policies that promote marriage as a route to economic stability for single mothers.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Center for Research on Child Wellbeing • July 01, 2003

The Dynamics of Housing Affordability
This report examines housing affordability in Canada by measuring the percentage of Canadians who spend 30 percent or more of their income on housing.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Statistics Canada • January 2008

Stepfamilies: Understanding and responding effectively
This brief examines the difficulty in identifying and calculating the growing number of stepfamilies in Australia.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Australian Family Relationship Clearinghouse • 2007

Determinants of Welfare Entry and Exit by Young Women
This paper demonstrates that parental reliance on welfare, family and personal attitudes towards education, family structure, academic ability, and ethnicity are all factors that affect the likelihood of welfare dependency and the rate of welfare entry and exit.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for Research on Poverty • July 01, 1996

The Changing Role of Child Support among Never-Married Mothers
This paper shows that more never-married mothers are receiving child support than were in the past, although it continues to be relatively uncommon.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for Research on Poverty • October 01, 1999

How Will Welfare Reform Affect Childbearing and Family Structure Decisions?
This paper provides evidence that reforms to the welfare system have been moderately successful both in encouraging marriage and in discouraging divorce, avoidance of child support, living separately from relatives, and childbearing while unmarried or on welfare.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for Research on Poverty • October 2001

Work, Welfare, and Family Structure: A Review of the Evidence
This paper looks at a number of major American welfare reform programs, including Assistance for Families with Dependent Children, Medicaid, and food stamps.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for Research on Poverty • August 01, 1996

How Does Adolescent Fertility Affect the Human Capital and Wages of Young Women?
This paper investigates the impact of teenage childbearing on the educational attainment, employment, and income of young women.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for Research on Poverty • September 01, 1997

The Effect of Peer Support on Postpartum Depression: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial
This study provided mothers at risk for post-partum depression with peer support over the telephone and compared depressive symptoms in this group with those in a control group.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Canadian Psychiatric Association • March 01, 2003

Single motherhood and mental health: implications for primary prevention
This paper provides an extensive survey of research done on the health of single mothers.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Canadian Medical Association • March 01, 1997

Junior Comes Back Home: Trends and Predictors of Returning to the Parental Home
This paper examines patterns among young adults returning home.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Statistics Canada • December 15, 2006

One out of Every Five: Teenage Motherhood and Subsequent Childbearing
This paper looks at the factors that influence subsequent childbearing among teenagers and examines the impact that this has on both the mother and the children.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Center for Law and Social Policy • August 01, 1998

Cohabitation and Marriage: How are they related?
This paper reports on marriage and cohabitation trends in Canada and provides a comparative analysis of these family structures.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Vanier Institute of the Family • September 2005

The Legacy of Parental Divorce: Social, Economic and Demographic Experiences in Adulthood
This paper discusses the impact of childhood parental divorce and explores the extent to which divorce causes negative, long-term, educational, emotional, psychological, financial, and relational outcomes for children of divorce.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion • October 01, 1997

The Divorced and Who Divorces?
This paper looks at the background and characteristics of the divorced population in Britain in order to better understand the breakdown of marriage.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion • May 1998

Comparing the Lifestyles of Homosexual Couples to Married Couples
This paper provides statistics to demonstrate the differences between committed homosexual couples and married heterosexual couples.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Family Research Council • March 01, 2004

Subsidizing Child Care for Low-Income Families: A Good Bargain for Canadian Governments?
This paper examines the effects child care has on the employment and income of lone-mothers.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for Research on Public Policy • May 01, 1998

Cohabitation and the Measurement of Child Poverty
This paper looks at the effect that treating cohabiting couples like married couples would have on estimates of child poverty in the 1990 US Census.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Population Studies Center • June 1998

Family Structure and the Economic Well-being of Black, Hispanic, and White Pre-Retirement Adults
This paper looks at the extent to which elderly individuals benefit economically from co-residing with their children.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Office of Population Research • September 1998

Functional Status, Living Arrangements, and the Social Context of Disability
This study explores the relationship between family structure and rates of cognitive, physical and emotional disability among middle-aged adults.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Population Research Center • 1998

Marital Status Stability, Marital Transitions, and Health: A Life Course Perspective
This paper examines the effect of marital status continuity and change on an individual's physical health and well-being, and finds that these effects vary considerably according to an individual's gender and age.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Population Research Center • 2001

The Implications of Parents' Conjugal Histories For Children
This paper examines the consequences of increasing levels of cohabitation, as opposed to marriage, as the basis for starting a family.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• ISUMA • Autumn 2000

The Effects of Time Use and Time Pressure on Parent-Child Relationships
This paper looks at how parent-child relationships have been affected by changes in the labour market, working arrangements, family structure, and division of labour over time.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Health Canada • October 2000

Financial Disadvantage in Australia 1990 to 2000: The Persistence of Poverty in a Decade of Growth
This paper examines trends in poverty in Australia in the 1990s, with an analysis of differences based on age, gender, employment status, educational attainment, housing tenure, geographic location and family type.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Smith Family, National Centre for Social and Economic Modelling • 2001

Americans Rank Strengthening Families As High Priority
This public opinion poll on the state of the family found that most Americans believe that the preservation of the family is critical for the future stability and prosperity of the United States.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Wirthlin Worldwide • August 2000

Does Divorce Make People Happy? Findings from a Study of Unhappy Marriages
This study investigates the assumption that divorced people are happier than those who remain in unhappy marriages.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for American Values • 2002

Maternal Stress and Mothering Behaviors in Stable and Unstable Families
This paper examines the effect of family structure arrangements on maternal stress and parenting style.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Center for Research on Child Wellbeing • Revised May 2004

Cohabitation: A Snapshot
This paper examines patterns of cohabitation in the United States, the characteristics of cohabiters, the quality and length of their relationships, and the relationship between cohabitation, marriage, and divorce.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Center for Law and Social Policy • May 1998

Dissolutions of Unions in Europe: A Comparative Overview
This paper provides an overview of patterns and trends in marital survival and dissolution in various countries in Western and Eastern Europe.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research • February 7, 2003

How Premarital Children and Childbearing in Current Marriage Influence Divorce of Swedish Women in their First Marriages
This article demonstrates that couples' childbearing histories have an important influence on their risk of experiencing a divorce.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research • August 27, 2002

Family Disintegration and the Retreat from Common Sense
This document discusses the church’s reaction to family disintegration in the latter half of the twentieth century.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Christian Institute • 1995

AbstractRe/Working Benefits: Continuation of Non-Cash Benefits Support for Single Mothers and Disabled Women
This study asked single mothers and women with disabilities about the importance of the non-cash benefits that they received while on welfare, such as childcare, housing, and transportation.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Status of Women Canada, Policy Research Fund • February 01, 2003

"Time to Do the Chores?" Factoring Home-Production Needs into Measures of Poverty
This paper argues that families need not only sufficient income but also sufficient time to perform essential household tasks.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for Research on Poverty • March 01, 1994

Why Marriages Last: A Discussion of the Literature
This paper discusses the existing literature on the factors that contribute to creating a lasting marriage.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Australian Institute of Family Studies • July 01, 2002

Single Mothers in Various Living Arrangements: Differences in Economic and Time Resources
This paper examines the welfare of single mothers who are either cohabiting or living with their parents, and discusses how their race affects their outcomes.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for Research on Poverty • November 01, 1995

Beyond Single Mothers: Cohabitation, Marriage and the U.S. Welfare System
This paper examines patterns and consequences of marriage and cohabitation among welfare recipients in the United States.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for Research on Poverty • July 01, 1995

Shared Parenting in Fragile Families
This paper examines the effect of family structure and individual characteristics on mothers' and fathers' levels of interaction with their one-year-old children.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Center for Research on Child Wellbeing • April 01, 2001

Australian Social Trends 2001: Family - Family Formation: Older Mothers
This article discusses the increasing trend towards delaying pregnancy and motherhood until later in life.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Australian Bureau of Statistics • May 20, 2002

Opening Doors: Students' Perspectives on Juggling Work, Family and College
This study looks at the challenges faced by low-income workers who have the opportunity to increase their earning potential by gaining credentials through a community college.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation • July 01, 2002

Experiments in Living: The Fatherless Family
This paper looks at factors leading to the decline of two parent families and outlines the effects of single-parenting and divorce on men, women, and children.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• CIVITAS – The Institute for the Study of Civil Society • September 01, 2002

Economic Status in Later Life Among Women Who Raised Children Outside of Marriage
This paper examines the economic status of older women who, at some point in their lives, spent ten years or more raising children outside of marriage.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Urban Institute • February 01, 2004

Vulnerability to Future Dependence Among Former AFDC Mothers
This study demonstrates that a significant number of women who had formerly relied on Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) returned to it after only a short period of time.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for Research on Poverty • January 01, 1995

Effects of Family Structure on the Risk of First Premarital Birth in the Presence of Correlated Unmeasured Family Effects
This paper examines the effects of family structure on a woman's risk of a non-marital first birth.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Population Research Center • April 26, 2004

Shifting Family Definitions: The Effect of Cohabitation and Other Nonfamily Household Relationships on Measures of Poverty
This paper responds to the argument that, when measuring poverty, the definition of family needs to be changed to include other relationships and living arrangements.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for Research on Poverty • February 01, 1997

2001 Family Time Report: It's Time for Families
This report presents information regarding the quality and quantity of time that families spend together in the state of Washington, and discusses various factors that affect this time.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Families Northwest • November 01, 2001

Do Children Make a Marriage Unhappy?
This article critiques the perception that having children decreases marital satisfaction.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Brigham Young University • July 01, 2000

"Honey I'm Home." Changes in Living Arrangements in the Late 1990s
This study found that, in the late 1990s, there was a decline in the number of families led by single mothers and a rise in cohabitation.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Urban Institute • June 01, 2001

Explorations in Inmate-Family Relationships
This study demonstrates that inmates who maintained family relationships during their incarceration period were more likely to experience parole success than those who did not.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Family and Corrections Network • January 01, 1972

Australia's Ageing Population: How Important are Family Structures?
This paper looks at the impact that an ageing population has on society, explores the role that families play in caring for the elderly, and discusses policies intended to respond to an ageing population.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• National Centre for Social and Economic Modelling • May 01, 1997

Survival at the Bottom: The Income Packages of Low-Income Families with Children
This report examines the well-being of low-income families and seeks to correct some common misperceptions.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for Women's Policy Research • June 01, 2003

The Health of Lone Mothers
This paper examines the health of lone mothers over time and compares it to the health of mothers in dual parent homes.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Statistics Canada • October 01, 1999

The Verdict on Cohabitation vs. Marriage
This article looks at the benefits of marriage over cohabitation.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Brigham Young University • 2001

Family Structure and Mental Health
Using previously collected data, the author focuses attention on social and psychological processes that point to new methods of analysis in the areas of stress and family structure, poverty in single-parent households and health, and the impact of childhood experiences on subsequent family structure.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• CMHS/ Mental Health Statistics Improvement Program • June 01, 2003

Profiling Canada's Families II
This document contains comprehensive and detailed information pertaining to the contemporary Canadian family.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Vanier Institute of the Family • 1998

The Fading Breadwinner Role and the Economic Implications for Young Couples
This paper looks at the increased prevalence of dual-earning families and shows that families in which both partners work have an economic advantage over those in which the husband is the sole breadwinner.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for Research on Poverty • December 01, 1994

Fathers' Perceptions of Paternal Roles: Variations by Marital Status and Living Arrangement
This study asked fathers what they perceived to be their most important parental role: financial support, direct care, love and affection, protection, discipline, or teaching life lessons.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Center for Research on Child Wellbeing • October 01, 2003

Can Government Strengthen Marriage: Evidence from the Social Sciences
This paper explores how and why the government should implement public policies that support the institution of marriage and work towards the reduction of divorce and unmarried childbearing.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Institute for American Values • 2004

Low Income, Labour Force Participation and Women in Housing Need, 1991
Using data from 1991 housing cost surveys, this paper discusses core housing need and demonstrates its connection to low household income and lack of workforce participation.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Depository Services Program • 1991

Employment, Family Union, and Childbearing Decisions in Great Britain
This paper explores the extent to which changes in family life and employment are linked.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion • April 01, 2004

The Housing and Socio-Economic Conditions of Lone-Parent Families: 1991 Census Profile
This article uses unpublished data from the 1991 census to highlight the economic conditions of lone-parent families specifically with reference to their housing situation.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation • June 01, 1997

Cohabitation and Divorce Across Nations and Generations
This paper assesses the extent to which parental separation or divorce during childhood affects adulthood relational outcomes.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion • March 01, 2003

Cleaning Up Their Act: The Impacts of Marriage and Cohabitation on Licit and Illicit Drug Use
This paper examines the impact of marriage or cohabitation on the risk behaviours of young adults, such as binge drinking, smoking, and marijuana consumption.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• Northwestern University • August 25, 2003

Family Characteristics and Sexual Risk Behaviors Among Black Men in the United States
This study demonstrates that family structure, particularly maternal employment and parental marital status, affects the sexual behaviours of black adolescent and adult males.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• The Alan Guttmacher Institute • October 01, 2002

Five Million Children: 1991 Update
This report provides a profile of child poverty in 1989, and shows that poverty rates for children under age six were increasing substantially during this time.
• Category: Family Structure > Impact of Family Structure on Adults
• National Center for Children in Poverty • 1991